Pakam are Dinka, one of the largest tribe in Sudan also known as (Jieng or Muony-Jang) meaning man of men, Sub-Clan of Agar clan. Geographical location Pakam is situated exactly 75 miles North of Rumbek which is the current capital city of Lakes State in Southern Sudan. It's neighbored Dinka Luac and Nuer in the north, Rek and Gok in the west, Nuer in the east and Boor in the south. Environment, Economy and Natural Resources The Pakam habitat ranges from flat landscape and the flood plains (toich) between the River Nile and its numerous tributaries and distributaries to the rich savannah grasslands of Upper Nile. The economy is largely traditional animal husbandry, subsistence agriculture, fishing and hunting. Ownership of livestock is familial; and is a basis of social status/standing in Pakam. The larger the herd the more prestigious the family. The Pakam is endowed with huge natural resources include forest products such as, palm tree and fisheries resources. Mythology and History According to a myth held by many Dinka sections, the first people to be created by God (Nhialic) were Garang and Abuk, understood now as being the equivalent of Adam and Eve. Deng was their first born from whom all Dinka people are descended. Religion: The Pakam are like the rest of Dinka clans believed in a universal single God, whom they call Nhialic. They believe Nhialic is the creator and source of life but is distant from human affairs. Humans contact Nhialic through spiritual intermediaries and entities called jok or jaak plural which can be manipulated by various rituals. These rituals are administered by diviners and healers. They believed that the spirits of the departed become part of the spiritual sphere of this life. They have rejected attempts to convert them to Islam, but have been somewhat open to Christian missionaries. Cattle have a religious significance. They are the first choice as an animal of sacrifice, though sheep may be sacrificed as a substitute on occasion. Sacrifices may be made to jok or jaak, since Nhialic is too distant for direct contact with humans. Language The Pakam speak Dinka language (Thong mony-jiang or thong-Jieng) Pakam, Social Events, Attitudes, Traditions and Customs The Pakam comprises mainly of five sections namely, Aniin, Liedh included Akoor-koor, Manuer, Ninil and Gaak. These are alliance of lineages that are bound by blood and other individuals or families who had attached themselves either by marriage or otherwise. The sections identify themselves with a particular lineage originally derived from one of the main chiefly section (beny), who are dominant and said to have the land of the section. They claim a single ancestor and base their right to political and religious superiority on some particular important myth about their descent. Among the Pakam beny bith is believed to possess supernatural powers associated with truth-telling, justice, wealth, knowledge, and prophetic vision. The Pakam are proud and ethnocentric but, nevertheless, hospitable and friendly more often than not demonstrating a high moral standard, code of behavior, feeding mannerism and sense of personal dignity (dheeng) and integrity. They deal with others on the basis of reciprocity. The Pakam like the rest of Dinka are least touched by modernization; their pride and ethnocentrism must be important factors in their conservatism and resistance to change. Pakam culture is centered on cattle. It is the medium of exchange whether in marriage, payment of debts and blood price, or for sacrifices to the spirits and on major occasions and rites. The Pakam people retain the traditional pastoral life of the Nilotes, but have added agriculture in some areas, growing grains, peanuts, beans, corn (maize) and other crops. Women do most of the agriculture, but men clear forest for the gardening sites. There is usually one plantings season per year. Some are occasionally hunters (adeef). Pakam culture incorporated strategies for dealing with the annual cycle of one long dry season and one long rainy season. These involved a careful contingency planning such as rationing of food (nyiectou) to last the family to next three major hunger seasons namely, Mei, Keer and Yaak. Rut and Ruel are Pakam's honey moon" months because these are months when they harvest milk and crops and plenty of food is available at this time. The small boys (dhaakthii) tend goats and sheep while the big boys (dhaakdit) are responsible for the cattle. The cattle are central to the Pakam culture and their worldview. A man will identify with one special ox, will name it and compose songs and dances about the ox. He calls himself by the name of the ox, which is given to him at his initiation to adulthood. The ox will be referred to by many reference names, allusions to the direct name, which is actually its colour.The Pakam expect an individual to be generous to others in order to achieve status in the society. The Pakam base their life on values of honor and dignity. They discuss and solve problems in public forums. The people's roles within the groups, their belief systems and the rituals they practice, all reflect this. Cattle give milk (butter and ghee), urine is used in washing, to dye hair and in tanning hides. Dung fuels fires from which ash is used to keep the cattle clean and free from blood-sucking ticks, to decorate themselves (body art), and as a paste to clean teeth. While cattle are not killed for meat, if one dies or is sacrificed, the meat is eaten and the hide cured. Skins are used for mats and drum skins, and belts, ropes and halters are also made from it. Horns and bones are used for a range of practical and aesthetic items. Naming Every Pakam male is given an ox by his father, uncle or whoever is responsible for him. His 'bull-name' like other Dinka names also derive from colour of their cattle and a girl (Ayen, Yar, etc.) or a boy (Mayom, Mayen, Malith, etc.) could be named after the colour of the best ox (mayom, malith, mayen) or cow (ayen, Yar) that was given in marriage by the father. Like other Nilotics, the Pakam have special names for twins: Madit, Adit, Lual, Bol, etc. indicating being a twin. The Pakam have large vocabulary for cattle, their colours and take great interest and pride in the art of making different conformations to which their horns can be trained to grow. When discussing, debating about anything or in a dance, a Pakam usually throws up his arms in imitation of the shape of the horns of ox. Marriage Marriage is obligatory among the Pakam. Every male is expected to raise a family and can marry as many wives as possible. Relatives marry to the ghost of a male who died in infancy -many 'ghost fathers' exist among the Pakam. The bride price differs from one section to the other. It ranges from some tens to a few hundreds dependent on who is getting married to whom and how many suitors contesting over the same girl. In the same way the bride price is raised by the groom's family - contribution, it is distributed accordingly (uncle to uncle, brother to brother, etc.) in the Bride's clan. Chief's daughters (nyan beny) fetch more cattle in the same way chief's son is expected to pay more cattle for his wife. University graduates fetch more bride prices; a factor that is likely to positively affect enrolment of girls in schools. Like other Nilotics, sex among the Pakam is only for social reproduction. Thus, fornication is prohibited; adulterers are despised and heavily fined, sometimes this may be source of conflict and clan fighting. Incest is usually unimaginable and indeed abhorred. Initiation into Adulthood Initiation into adulthood takes different styles and ceremonies. They invariably remove the 4 lower canines as a sign of maturity. A girl's physiological evolution and attainment of puberty is marked by celebration (usually by women) to demonstrate readiness for marriage. Initiation marks a young man's passage from boyhood to adulthood. A boy initiated is called aparakpool - "one who has stopped milking". Initiation means he no longer does a boy's work of milking, tethering the cattle, and carting dung. Initiation is marked by mutilation - tribal marks of several parallel lines or four circle-shaped marks - are scarified onto the youth's forehead. The pattern of scars may change over time but the aparapuol is always easily recognizable as belonging to a particular tribe. This scarification takes place at any age from ten to sixteen. Initiates are warriors, guardians of the camp against predators - lions, hyenas - and against enemy raiders. Some stay with the cattle all year round. All of them stay with the cattle during the dry months but most return to the villages to help cultivate the crops during the wet season. Even in this duty, the aparapuol have the role of warrior protectors. The cattle, protected by the aparapuol who remain with them, are kept in camps on the plains at the base of the foothills for the entire wet season. Social and Political Organization The Pakam like the rest of Dinka are a cephalous nationality - a cultural rather than political federation of sub-nationalities. The concept of state and hence political institutions, structure and consequently authority does not exist among the Dinka. Each Dinka section is an autonomous political entity in itself. Chieftainship is hereditary and holds the title of beny (plural bany), which translates into different things such as ''chief'''', ''expert'', or ''''''''military officer''. The title always has an attribute in order to indicate the office, for example, beny baai, beny-ring or beny-bith in the remaining parts of the country. The word ring probably refers to the supernatural power of the chief. Bith, on the other hand, is the sacred fishing-spear (unbarbed or un-serrated spear) as a symbol of office [Lienhardt]. The spiritual leaders (fishing spear chief, medicine women/men, and rain's chief (beny deng) exert great influence. Except in few cases, the spiritual leaders more often reject secular authority. Pakam chiefs exercised authority by persuasion not through any known instruments of coercion and force. Modern Administrative Structures During and after Britain's colonization Pakam had never merit sympathy from those successive regimes and had sufficient characteristics that qualified it as a deliberate marginalized location if not a division. And as a result the sons and daughters of this location like any other patriotic southerners took up arms and fought along side SPLM/A to help achieve vision of justice, equality, progress and freedom for all. In 2005 the fruits of two decades armed struggles were partly harvest through crowning of struggle with Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA). Immediately before, the late leader John Garang perish in controversial plane crash, Pakam was commissioned as a county which is an administrative organs and first commissioner Mayek Noah appointed. The county is headed by a commissioner, assisted by deputy, who is further assisted by five payams administrators namely Malueth, Meen, Aloor, Wurieng and Madol. These five payams administrators are also assisted by Bumas administrators who are further co-assisted by chiefs. However, you would hardly discriminate legal jurisdictions of chiefs from commissioner, you would always finds chiefs dictating or conditioning either commissioner or payam administrator to meet certain terms before, a full cooperation is assured. In that sense you will not have the same description of the administrative structure as stated above The most important culture asset of the Pakam is the cattle camp, where all social activities; traits and behaviors including dheeng, valor, generosity and respect for social norms are cultivated. Pakam literature like Dinka literature remains orally expressed in songs, poems, riddles and folklore. The Pakam sections have evolved their different articles of arts, music and folklore. There are of course many different types of dance formations and songs. The common art is that of war: spear and stick. The Pakam start practicing stick and spear dueling with great dexterity from their youth. There are certain types of songs for different types of activities of life, like festive occasions, field work, and preparation for war and initiation ceremonies. History and social identity are taught and preserved through songs. They sing praise songs to their ancestors and the living. Songs are even used ritually in competition to resolve a quarrel in a legal sense. Women also make pottery and weave baskets and mats. Men are blacksmiths, making all sorts of implements Relationship with Neighbours and Foreigners The Pakam have cultural and linguistic affinity to and share much with the Nuer, Luac, Rek, Gok and Boor. With exception of Nuer the rest are clans of Dinka and despites, having the same identity they have had and still have huge resource based conflicts amongst themselves, which have claimed thousands of lives over decades. All the Dinka clans which neighbored Pakam including Nuer own large number of cattle and when there is shortage of water and pastures for their animals it would mean violation of border rules and conflict would start. Modernity and foreign ideas have permeated Pakam culture and are slowly replacing their traditions and customs. Many Pakam have converted to Christianity. They have adopted either jellabia or European dress and now nudity and wearing of skins are rare sight even in the cattle camps. Latest Developments Like other nationals in south Sudan, the Pakam have been affected by war. Many of have been displaced and live either as internally displaced persons (IDPs) or as refugees in the neighboring countries. This has had influence on the social fabric, traditions and attitudes. In Agar Dinka interaction with war and its exigencies has resulted in use of their revered cattle in agricultural production. Many have become traders trekking hundreds of kilometers to Uganda and Congo to sell their bulls and bring back consumer goods. International humanitarian and development aid inputs; the monetization of economy and motorization of transport are slowly but steadily prompting changes in the lives of the Agar Pakam. Diaspora The war has created a Pakam Diaspora in Europe, America (Lost Boys) and Australia. Some in the Diaspora maintain strong links and communication with their family members back home; making regular remittances to support them. References: Report and articles in the colonial official communication papers: Sudan Notes and Records [SNR] since 1918. Seligman, C. G., and Seligman, B. Z., 'Pagan Tribes of the Nilotic Sudan.' George Routledge & Sons Ltd., London, 1932. Lienhardt, Godfrey, "The Western Dinka", in Tribes without Rulers, ed. John Middleton and David Tait. Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., London, 1958 Lienhardt Godfrey, 'Divinity and Experience, the Religion of the Dinka'. Oxford University Press, London, 1961. Gray, Richard, 'A History of the Southern Sudan, 1839 - 1889'. Oxford University Press, London, 1961. Swakins, John. 'Jangara'. Longmans, London, 1963. Deng, Francis Mading. 'Tradition and Modernisation.' Yale University Press, New Haven, 1971, and Second edition 2004. Deng, Francis Mading. 'The Dinka of the Sudan.' Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., New York, 1972. Deng, Francis Mading. 'The Dinka and their Songs.' Oxford University Press, London, 1973. Deng, Francis Mading. 'African of two Worlds.' Yale University Press, New Haven, 1978. Collins, Robert O., 'Land beyond the Rivers, the Southern Sudan, 1898 - 1918.' Yale University Press, New Haven and London, 1971. John Ryle, 'Warriors of the White Nile, The Dinka.' Peoples of the World, Time-Life Books, Amsterdam, 1982.